Indigenous Education

The use of mother tongue for the Indigenous peoples in primary education is an approach in inclusive education where language is recognised an integral part of a student’s cultural identity (UNESCO, 2024). Yet, the Indigenous peoples worldwide have frequently faced neglect and suppression of their languages and cultures in schools, which in turn, impacts the quality of learning (Kuzborska & De Varennes, 2016). This literature review explores on legal framework, barriers to mother tongue education, and the effects on learning outcomes.

Legal Framework

Key international instruments include the United Nation Declaration of Indigenous People (UNDRIP) and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) which emphasised that children in indigenous groups should be taught to read and write in their own language (International Labour Organisation, 2021; UNDRIP, 2007). There are several national legal frameworks highlighted in many studies which mandated local language in different countries as medium of instruction in the primary school and as a prerequisite to study the official language of the country. For instance, countries such as Papua New Guinea, Nordic countries (Finland, Norway, and Sweden), and the Philippines decreed the use of mother tongue in primary schools (Malone & Paraide, 2011; Jorolan-Quintero, 2018; Skutnabb-Kangas et al., 2009). However, Nakata (2024) argues that despite efforts from agencies, governments still put many limits on Indigenous peoples trying to revive and use their languages, and that one major issue is not providing enough steady funding.

Barriers to Mother Tongue Education

Stigmatisation and Cultural Bias

In schools, home languages are largely excluded from the curriculum in various countries, and ethnolinguistic minority children are often forbidden for speaking their native language at school (Hurwitz & Kambel, 2020). The dominant language is given higher status and privilege, while Indigenous languages and cultures are viewed as outdated and fading, a bias that is reinforced through school events, holidays, and the implicit messages in the curriculum (Lee, 2009). The pursuit of equal opportunities in language education often leads to standardised, culturally dominant national language instruction, neglecting individual learning needs and overlooking the social disparities faced by Indigenous communities (Jacob et al., 2015).

Hollie (2017) argued that for educators to be culturally and linguistically responsive, they must adjust their beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge to see students' cultural and linguistic backgrounds. For instance, Cavalier et al. (2018) emphasised that educators can establish a ‘working alliance’ with students through pedagogical approaches that help students understand and accept that learning about racial and Indigenous justice is an integral part of their education. Notably, Jacob et al. (2015) stressed the importance of a pedagogical method and school leadership that adapts to cultural contexts. In Japan, there is an inclusive education project called 'Urespa,' or mutual nurturing; its mission is to promote co-living and harmony by educating both the Ainu people and the majority of Japanese students to accept their differences (Maeda & Okano, 2020).

Teacher Training

Khanyile and Awung (2023) revealed insufficient training in using the mother tongue as primary instruction, with Kwazulu-Natal teachers only receiving it as a subject during university. This is also evident in Southeast Asian countries where teachers are not specifically trained to use the mother tongue in education (Segi, 2014; Ha et al., 2014). Similarly, Sámi teacher training, especially in using and creating instructional materials in the native language, has been a challenge in Scandinavian countries (O'Dowd, 2015). Sajat et al. (2023) argued that in addition to cultural knowledge and enhanced teacher training, teachers need strong interpersonal skills and proficiency in the students' native language to encourage indigenous students to continue their education. Notably, through the initiatives of partnerships in the Philippines, teachers have been equipped to design curricula and create educational materials (Cornelio & De Castro, 2015). Further, they have established ‘Sagu-ilaw’, a school focused on training education assistants who can teach children in their communities (Abejuela III, 2016).

Resources

Mother-tongue instruction often lacks instructional and learning materials in indigenous languages and such materials may include books and digital resources (Fillmore, 2020; Cabansag, 2016; King & Schielmann, 2004). Also, the lack of teachers who speaks the native language and high turnover rate present significant obstacles to indigenous education (Monkman, 2017; Mckenna, 2023; Hall, 2013). Moreover, national curricula often lack relevance to indigenous peoples, posing a challenge in curriculum development (Jacob et al., 2015). Fan and Liu (2020), however, explored leadership in indigenous education, providing a foundation for future research to address various challenges, including resource shortages. To transform schools for Indigenous students, academics and practitioners must reflect on how leadership is conceptualised and practiced in schools and communities nationwide (Faircloth & Tippeconnic III, 2013). Remarkably, progresses have been made in Latin America that involves curriculum development and training teachers to strengthen indigenous language  (Cortina, 2016).

Effects on Learning Outcomes

Language socialisation theory emphasises that effective learning is shaped by a community's cultural beliefs about raising children, including ideas about identity, social interactions, emotions, knowledge, and development, which are conveyed through communication in everyday life (Duranti et al., 2011). It is therefore essential for the language and communication practices of teachers and students to be aligned; yet, research on language in Indigenous schools shows that differences in language significantly impact learning outcomes and contribute to communication problems for both teachers and students (Gardner & Mushin, 2012). For instance, in south Thailand, Premsrirat and Burarungrot (2021) found the lack of official recognition for the language of indigenous people and the requirement to study in national language which led to the lowest academic achievement in the country. Research indicates that mother-tongue education is crucial for inclusion and high-quality learning, as it enhance learning outcomes, academic performance, and motivation to continue their studies. (UNESCO, 2023; Rauf & Ali, 2023; Seid, 2016). In line with this perspective, Maeda & Okano (2020) found positive learning outcome in the use of mother tongue in schools, which includes improvement of self-image of students and development of students’ leadership skills.

Conclusion

Although progresses have been made globally, there is still a long way to go before ensuring every learner's right to education in their mother tongue (UNESCO, 2023). Through inclusive practices, school leaders and educators can overcome these barriers by adopting appropriate pedagogical methods that strengthen Indigenous identities. However, this requires effective leadership that prompts collaboration with the community, and funding. High-quality education to improve learning outcomes, similar to those in non-Indigenous schools, is also crucial. As part of a larger ethnic group in the Philippines, with over one hundred ethnolinguistic groups, the mother tongue is a powerful tool for improving learning outcomes and fostering inclusive education.

References

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